Olivier Armantier, Marco Cipriani, and Asani Sarkar
(2024): Explores why banks use the window outside of crises, noting that smaller banks with illiquid portfolios are the most frequent users. discount window treatment
If you are looking for a comprehensive research paper on this topic, the most recent and authoritative study is: Olivier Armantier, Marco Cipriani, and Asani Sarkar (2024):
(2025): Uses laboratory experiments to show that once a facility is stigmatized, it is extremely difficult to "cure" that perception, even with policy changes. the DW remains heavily stigmatized.
Despite Fed efforts to encourage usage, the DW remains heavily stigmatized.